Discover the Buildings that Define Brutalist Architecture
Discover the rise, fall, and return of one of the 20th century’s most provoking styles
After decades of being dismissed as cold, heavy, and unforgiving, Brutalism is being reconsidered through a very different lens. Its monumental concrete forms were once seen as symbols of failed postwar ambition, institutional severity, and architectural austerity. Today, those same buildings are admired for their grandeur, theatricality, and philosophy of making something powerful from ordinary materials. In an era shaped by climate concerns, adaptive reuse, and a renewed appreciation for buildings designed to endure, it is easy to understand why Brutalism, along with its greener contemporary offshoot eco-Brutalism, is having a moment.
The movement took shape in the years after World War II, when architects were rethinking how cities, housing, and civic life should be rebuilt. The term is often linked to the French phrase béton brut, translating to “raw concrete.” This phrase was used to describe the exposed concrete surfaces of French-Swiss architectural designer and urban planner Le Corbusier. But Brutalism was never just about concrete. At its core, Brutalism was about honesty: letting materials show themselves and change through time and space, rejecting decorative polish in favor of function.
Le Corbusier’s Unité d’Habitation in Marseille, completed in 1952, is one of the clearest early examples of this thinking. Designed as a kind of vertical city, the building brought apartments and shared spaces into one massive concrete structure, reflecting the postwar idea that architecture could help reshape everyday life. In Britain, Alison and Peter Smithson helped push Brutalism into sharper focus through what became known as New Brutalism. Their work emphasized directness, social purpose, and the unpolished expression of materials and construction, treating architecture not just as a style, but as a response to modern urban life.
The Peak of Brutalism
By the 1950s, ’60s, and 70s, Brutalism was everywhere. Appearing across university campuses, libraries, government buildings, cultural centers, and housing complexes. These buildings were not trying to be charming; instead, they were seen as strong, durable, and insulating.
Brutalism’s Decline
Over time, the same qualities that made Brutalism so distinctive became easy targets for criticism. Buildings were viewed as intimidating eyesores, and many of these concrete structures aged poorly because they were difficult to maintain. Some Brutalist housing projects and civic centers became easy targets for broader frustrations centered on bureaucracy, urban planning, and underfunded public spaces. In parts of Eastern Europe and the Soviet sphere, the style became linked to the visual language of the Cold War. After the fall of the Soviet Union, many buildings were left to decay or dismissed as relics of an unwanted era. The style was no longer associated with an optimistic future but with failed social experiments that didn’t fully pan out.
The Return of Brutalism
Today, Brutalism is being viewed with greater nuance. Part of the appeal is visual, since these buildings have an inherent quality of drama and weight that feels unique against a backdrop of glass and beige buildings. But the renewed interest also has to do with preservation and sustainability. As architects and cities consider how to adapt and reuse these buildings rather than demolish them and create waste, these structures are being reconsidered and embraced. Eco-Brutalism, in particular, has greenery integrated into these concrete structures in the form of planted terraces, creating a subset of new enthusiasts.
Brutalism’s complicated legacy is part of its appeal. These buildings can feel severe, strange, overbearing, or visionary. The ten examples below show why the movement continues to provoke such strong emotions in the viewer and why they resonate today.
1. Hunstanton School, Norfolk, England
Designed by Alison and Peter Smithson, this building is renowned for its glass and steel structure. Completed in 1954, the building is nicknamed “the glasshouse.” The Smithsons wanted to unite the modernist architectural style of the Festival of Britain, a fair held in 1951, and the neighboring community. Their solution was the Hunstanton School structure, with its freestanding water tower described as “New Brutalism” by architectural critics.
2. National Theatre, London, England
Denys Lasdun’s National Theatre remains one of London’s most famous Brutalist landmarks. Completed in 1976, the building is recognized for its layered concrete terraces, horizontal planes, and imposing public presence. Its sculptural form gives the theater a sense of drama, and its pale concrete was chosen to complement the stone used in Waterloo Bridge and Somerset House. The concrete was cast around rough wooden planks, so this imprint was intentionally left in.
3. Barbican Estate and Barbican Center, London, England
Built in an area of London that was severely damaged by bombings during World War II, the Barbican Estate is a housing complex comprising around 2,000 flats. Designed by Chamberlin, Powell and Bon, the residential estate includes tower blocks, terrace blocks, mews houses, raised walkways, gardens, water features, and schools, making it feel almost like a self-contained concrete city. The Barbican Center, which opened in 1982, added another layer to that vision, with theaters, concert halls, galleries, cinemas, and public gathering spaces built into the larger estate. Its fortress-like forms can feel imposing, but that is also what makes the Barbican so compelling: it is not just a housing complex, but one of the clearest examples of Brutalism as an entire urban environment.
4. Trellick Tower, London, England
First opened in 1972, Trellick Tower was commissioned by the Greater London Council and designed by architect Ernő Goldfinger. Rising 31 stories in North Kensington, the building is one of London’s most recognizable examples of residential Brutalism, with a separate service tower connected to the main block by elevated walkways. Like many Brutalist housing projects, it was controversial for years and became associated with the harsher realities of postwar public housing. More recently, though, Trellick has been reassessed as a landmark, admired for its uncompromising silhouette.
5. Habitat 67, Montreal, Canada
Often referred to simply as Habitat, Habitat 67 is a housing complex in Cité du Havre, Montreal, designed by Israeli-Canadian-American architect Moshe Safdie. Built for Expo 67, the World’s Fair held in Montreal in 1967, the complex is made up of 354 prefabricated concrete forms arranged in different combinations and stacked into three pyramid-like structures. The result is one of Brutalism’s most optimistic experiments: a dense urban apartment building designed to offer some of the pleasures of suburban living, including gardens, fresh air, privacy, and a stronger connection to the outdoors.
6. Boston City Hall, Boston, Massachusetts
Completed in the late 1960s to replace Boston’s Old City Hall, the building is organized as a nine-story structure divided into three distinct tiers. The lower levels were designed for public use, while the middle and upper floors housed elected officials and city agencies, making the building’s civic hierarchy visible from the outside. Its facade combines brick at the base with concrete above, while projecting forms around the windows and upper stories give the building its famously heavy, sculptural presence. Although it has long divided public opinion, Boston City Hall was recognized early on by the architecture world, receiving the American Institute of Architects’ Honor Award in 1969.
7. Geisel Library | La Jolla, California
Opened in 1970, Geisel Library is named for Audrey and Theodore Seuss Geisel, better known as the children’s book author Dr. Seuss. Designed by William Pereira to sit at the head of a canyon, the building is instantly recognizable for its dramatic concrete arches, which were intended to evoke hands holding up a book. However, the library is often compared to a UFO. Its five upper stories house the collections, individual study spaces, and group study rooms, giving the building a striking balance between function and fantasy. With its hovering form and almost sci-fi presence, Geisel shows how Brutalism could be heavy and playful at the same time.
8. Western City Gate/Genex Tower | Belgrade, Serbia
Designed in 1977 by Mihajlo Mitrović, the Western City Gate is a 36-story skyscraper in Belgrade formed by two towers connected by a two-story bridge, with a revolving restaurant at the top that was never actually operational. It was conceived as a high-rise gate to welcome visitors arriving from the West, giving the building both a symbolic and architectural role in the city. Today, it is recognized as a cultural monument, with protections granted in 2021. With its monumental scale and almost sci-fi silhouette, the building captures the drama of Brutalism in the former Yugoslavia.
9. Bank of London and South America | Buenos Aires, Argentina
Constructed in 1960 after a competition organized by the Bank of London on the eve of its centenary in Buenos Aires, the Bank of London and South America looks almost startling against its 19th-century Beaux-Arts surroundings. Designed by Clorindo Testa with SEPRA, the building makes exposed concrete feel dramatic rather than plain, with heavy structural forms that read more like sculpture than standard office architecture. It is now considered one of the most important examples of postwar Brutalism, partly because it feels so forceful in contrast to the ornate buildings around it.
10. La Maladrerie | Aubervilliers, France
11. The Breuer Building | New York, New York
Completed in 1966, the Breuer Building was designed by Marcel Breuer. This imposing granite building was originally regarded unfavorably by critics who felt it stuck out against the backdrop of traditional brownstone and limestone homes on the Upper East Side. The building has housed a storied succession of institutions, from the Whitney Museum of American Art to a branch of the Metropolitan Museum of Art to the Frick Collection. It now serves as Sotheby’s global headquarters. Nearly 60 years later, it remains one of New York’s most important examples of Brutalism, with a form that still feels radical.